语用能力

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语用能力(一)
论“语用能力”的内涵

论“语用能力”的内涵

[摘要]语际语语用学在中国的研究已经开展了30余年,可是大

量研究结果表明,中国学生的语用能力仍然偏弱。为了更好地反思

并发展学生的语用能力,首先必须对语用能力的理论内涵进行梳

理。然后通过文献梳理发现,交际能力与语用能力之间有着不少联

系也有一定的区别,即交际能力包括了语用能力,其内涵更广;而

语用能力侧重更加清晰,内涵更未具体。最后,对语用能力的工作

定义做了阐述,即以“言语行为”的概念为核心,强调语用意识,

并包括语用策略。

[关键词]语用能力 交际能力

一、对“语用能力”的内涵理解对语际语用学研究的重要性

关于中国学生语际语语用能力的研究最早始于1985年。当时,何

自然(1985)对79位大专院校的英语教师进行了一次汉英语用差

异辨识测试。结果发现尽管受测试者具有很强的语言基本功,却仍

然在测试中出现了很多语用失误。他对这些语用失误做了分析,并

认为应该将语用知识纳入英语教学之中。此外,何自然还对如何培

养中国学生的语用能力也做了国内最早的探讨。随后,洪岗(1991)

也做了相关的研究。他采用了“答卷法”对某师大外语系本科英语

专业两个年级4个班的94位学生进行了调查。最后得出以下结论:

(1)语言能力强的人,语用能力不一定强,即语言能力与语用能

力并非完全成正比;(2)调查结果否定了“只要教语言系统知识,

语用能力(二)
语用能力

【语用能力】

第四章 语用能力

本章学习目标

1. 明确语用能力的内涵

2 掌握语用能力的构成

3. 了解语用能力的理论基础

本章概述

通过上一章的学习,我们可以看到语用能力对于解决语用失误等交际中的障碍的强大作用,可以说从某种程度上来说,语用能力决定着交际能否顺利进行。但是,许多英语学习者,尤其是非英语专业的学习者,往往忽视了语用能力的培养,甚至认为语用能力是枯燥无用的理论,没有认识到语用能力对交际的影响。无数的研究表明语言能力与语用能力并非完全成正比,我们不能想当然地认为只要提高了语言能力,语用能力就会相应的具备。“课堂上的交际活动给学习者提供了有益的语言实践机会,但是这种活动并不能产生学习者学习语用学知识所需要的社会语言性质的语言输入”(G. Kasper & R. Schmidt 1996:160),因此语用知识是必须要教授的。

本章将主要介绍什么是语用能力,语用能力的基本构成要素:施为能力,推理能力,社会语言能力和话语分析能力。希望通过本章的学习,学习者能够对语用能力的基本概念有所了解,在日后的学习中能够学以致用。

自主学习调查问卷

同学们,为了了解你们的语用交际能力,请参与本次调查。谢谢合作!

Directions: For each problem in this part, you are presented with one situation with four utterances underneath. Read the description of each situation with the utterances and decide which is the most appropriate utterance in that situation. Mark your choice by writing the corresponding letter in the brackets.

1. A: Is there any shopping to do?

【语用能力】

B: We‘ll be away for most of the weekend. What can we infer from the conversation?( )

A) If they are away for the weekend, then they won‘t need food. B) If they are away for the weekend, then they won‘t be able to go shopping. C) If they don‘t go shopping, then they won‘t have any food on their return. D) All possible.

2. A: Do you want some coffee?

B: Coffee would keep me awake.

What does B mean? ( )【语用能力】

A) B does not want to stay awake.

B) B does not want any coffee.

C) B want to stay awake. B wants some coffee and anything that will keep her awake.

D) All possible.

3. Man: If you don‘t have an account here, I can‘t cash your check. I‘m sorry, but that‘s the way it

is.

Woman: Well, thanks a lot! You‘re a big help. How does the woman feel? ( )

A) The woman is helpful. B) The woman is thankful. C) The woman is offended. D) The woman is sorry.

4. At work, John has just told Bill that they are one man short for the football match on Saturday against a neighbouring office team.

Bill: Why don‘t you ask Pete Todd to play? I know he‘s not very good but there‘s no one else to ask, is there?

John: Well, to be honest, Bill, I‘ve already asked him. He just wasn‘t interested.

Bill: Oh, that‘s a blow! By this he means ( )

A) ―That‘s a lie.‖ B) ―That‘s a shock!‖ C) ―That‘s a pity!‖ D) ―That‘s a strange.‖

5. After talking on the phone with Jack for some time, Hsiao Song says, ―I‘ve got to go now. Goodbye.‖ By this we can see ( )

A) he was going to stop talking on the telephone. B) he was going to leave the office. C) he was going to go home. D) it was time to leave the office.

6. A: What do you think of Harry?

B: Nothing wrong with him. By this, B means ( )

A) I don‘t think he is very good. B) He didn‘t do anything wrong. C) He is right. D) He is a great guy.

7. B is in the way.

A: May I get through here? ( )

B: A) Yes, please. B) Yes. C) Yes (opening a passageway) D) (Opening a passageway without demur.)

8. If someone gives you directions in English so quickly that you don‘t understand, you might

respond: ( )

A) ―Excuse me, I‘m still learning the language. Could you repeat that a little more slowly?‖

B) ―Thank you. I appreciate your help.‖ C) ―Could you repeat that?‖ D) Try to repeat the directions to the person.

9. Tom is talking to his school-mate, David.

Tom: How did you do in the exam, David?

D: I barely passed. I made a hopeless mess of it. I don‘t know why I did so badly.

Tom: ( ) A) Just try to forget about it. B) It‘s not worth worrying about. You‘ll do better next time.

10. When you are invited for the first time to the Brown‘s house and offered a cup of coffee, you

( )

A) should rise and receive it. B) should rise and say, ―Thank you.‖ C) should make a slight rising movement. D) can remain seated and receive it with a smile and say, ―Thank you‖.

Directions: There are 10 questions in this part. Each question has a part italicized. Read each question and decide whether the italicized part is appropriate or inappropriate. If it is appropriate, write an “A”, or, if it is inappropriate, write an “I” in the brackets.

1. When the new term began, a student met his teacher, Miss Smith, on his way to the classroom. Student: You must have a good time during the vacation. You look like you gained a lot of weight.

( )

2. Hsiao Wu gave his paper to Mr Brown, his supervisor, and said to Mr Brown, ―Perhaps you could read through this before Friday.‖ ( )

3. After Mark told his professor about his plan for a journey, Professor: It can be very cold at this time of the year at place. Mark: Oh, come on. ( )

4. As soon as the lecture was over, a student went up to the lecturer and said, ―You must be very tired. You’d better have a rest.‖ ( )

5. The students of Class One arranged an outing with their foreign teachers. As soon as they got on the school bus, one student said to Mrs Green, ―Please sit down, Mrs Green. You’re old. Don’t get tired, otherwise you’ll be ill.‖ ( )

6. Mingming and Paul are friends in the kindergarten. One day when Mingming‘s father came to meet him, he introduced Paul to his father. His father then said to Paul in English, ―Nice to meet you.‖ ( )

7. If you are a man in the West, and a lady comes into the room, you must rise to your feet. ( )

8. Tim and Harry are classmates. During the break, they had a chat. Tom said something about Jack. Harry agreed with him. Tim: He‘s rather difficult to get on with, I believe. Harry: Oh, I know, I know. ( )

9. One day, while walking on the street, Dick and Tony saw someone crossing the street. Dick: Who‘s that crossing the street?Tony: She’s Mary. ( )

10. Lida asked her friend Jim when the class was over: ―Can I come to your house tomorrow?‖ ( ) (改编自何自然阎庄调查问卷)

从上一章中,我们可以看出,如果我们想要同英语本族语者进行有效的交流,光靠语言知识是不够的,只有具备了一定的语用能力,才能避免语用失误,顺畅地进行交流。那么什么是语用能力呢?首先,让我们看一下不同学者对于语用能力的不同观点。

1965年Chomsky首先提出了“能力”这一概念,在《句法理论若干问题》一书中,Chomsky区分了能力(competence)与表现(performance)。能力是指一个语言使用者关于语言系统的基本理解,或者说是语言使用者的内在语言知识或内有语法;而表现则是指具体场景中语言的真实使用(Chomsky 1963:3-4)。Chomsky 所说的能力也被称为“语言能力”(linguistic competence)。在1977年,Chomsky又将能力分为:语用能力(pragmatic competence)和语法能力(grammatical competence)。Chomsky 的语法能力体现为语言形式的准确性(accuracy),而语用能力则体现为具体情景中语言运用的合适性(appropriateness)。

Hymes(1972)提出了交际能力。Hymes 认为除了语言能力(linguistic competence)外,本族语者还掌握着另外一套规则系统,使其能本能地知道在社交上什么是适宜的什么是不适宜的,并能根据话题、情景、人际关系等因素调节所使用的语言。Hymes的交际能力包括四部分:

(1) 可能性(possibility):指某一语言系统中可能存在的东西(如个人在特定语言社团中

关于语言的语音、词法、句法、词汇、语义、语用等的知识)

(2) 可行性(feasibility):指个人心理方面的语言容量(如个人的记忆和认知)

(3) 合适性(appropriateness):指交际中言语行为的得体表达 (如对交际背景、目的、常

规、参加者等因素的合理考虑)

(4) 出现性(performance/occurence):指交际中言语行为是否可行(如在可能、可行和合适

的情况下是否可做)(Hymes 1972:281)。

Widdowson认为:Hymes交际能力的第一个部分,即可能性相当于Chomsky所说的“语法能力”,其余三部分相当于Chomsky所说的语用能力。

Bachman (Bachman 1990:84)认为:语言交际能力(communicative language proficiency)是“both knowledge, or competence, and the capacity for implementing or executing that competence in appropriate contextualized communicative use”。他将语言交际能力分为三大成分:语言能力(language competence)、策略能力(strategic competence)与心理—身体机能 (psychophysiological mechanism)。

Bachman将语言能力(language competence)二分为组织能力(organizational competence)

和语用能力(pragmatic competence)。将组织能力二分为语法能力(grammatical competence)和语篇能力(textual competence);将语用能力二分为施为能力(illocutionary competence)和社会语言能力(sociolinguistic competence)。

Leech(1983)提出区分语用语言学和社交语言学。Thomas在此基础上将语用能力定义为:“为了实现某一特定目标有效使用语言的能力和在语境中理解语言的能力”(Thomas 1983:

94)。Thomas 认为语用能力包括语用语言能力和社交语用能力。语用语言能力建立在语法能力之上。只有语言使用者掌握了一定数量的语言资源之后,他们才能得体地使用语法规则来造句,并使其在特定的语境中被听话人理解,从而实现特定的交际目标。社交语用能力指感知在社交情景中构成得体言语行为的成分的能力,这种能力与社会价值、信仰等文化因素相关,是更高一级的能力。

Bialystok (Kasper & Blum-Kulka:43)认为:语用能力是在语境中使用并理解语言的各种能力,它包括:(1)说话人使用语言实现不同目的的能力,如请求、命令等 (2)听话人超出字面含义理解说话人真实意图的能力(3)使用一定规则将话语连接起来的能力,如话语轮换、合作、粘连等。她强调:语用能力主要指使用与理解非字面语言形式(non-literal forms)的能力。 Levinson认为话语能力应属于语用能力。

我国学者也对语用能力进行了不同的阐述

何自然(1997:201-202)认为:“不管怎样区分,语用能力可以解释为语用语言进行得体交际的能力,它可以简化为表达和理解两个方面。为使语言表达得体、合适,语言的使用者就必须学会针对特定的语境,考虑到社会和文化因素,灵活、合理地使用语言;而为了增强对语言的理解力,语言的接受者就必须了解言语交际的一般模式和原则,以及话语意义的多层次性”。

刘绍忠(1997:26)认为:“语用能力指听话人对语境的认识能力和在对语境认识的基础上理解别人的意思和意图,能够准确表达自己的意思和意图的能力”。

综上所述,我们认为语用能力主要包括施为能力、推理能力、社会语言能力和话语分析能力。其中社会语言能力和话语分析能力也属于交际能力。

第一节 施为能力

1. 施为性言语行为 (illocutionary act)

在上一章,我们初步了解了言语行为理论,了解了奥斯汀提出的言语行为的“三种行为”模式。下面我们再来回顾一下:【语用能力】

例 1:在一个寒冬的夜晚,John正准备出门。

【语用能力】

父亲对他说:―John, it is very late now.‖

父亲说的这句话语本身是言内行为(locutionary act); 父亲这么说的用意是不想让John在这么晚还外出,这是言外行为(illocutionary act);John听了父亲的话,没有出门,呆在了家里,这是言后行为(perlocutionary act)。

其中的言外行为(illocutionary act)即是我们所说的施为性言语行为或施事行为。它是与表述性言语行为(locutionary act)相对而言的,表示“言外之力(the act in saying something)‖,是指说话人旨在通过话语实施某个交际目的或执行某个特定功能的行为(何自然 陈新仁 2002:63)。哲学家奥斯汀(1962)把“句子发出的时候做出了的一个动作”称之为“施事”并用公式In saying X, I was doing Y来表示。塞尔(1972)认为言语行为就是施为性言语行为,都是指说话人通过话语传达其意图和目的。奥斯汀和塞尔(1979)都认为语言是用来施行动作行为的。

能否完成施为性言语行为要取决于交际时的具体语境。Austin说过,理解表述性行为是

理解意义(meaning),而理解施为性言语行为是理解其用意(force)。而在交际过程中,这种施为用意不仅仅局限于言语文字表面所传达的意思,交际者的施为用意往往是隐蔽的、含糊的、难以理解的,这时对施为用意的理解就要取决于交际语境了。

例 2:B: The roses are lovely.

语境:

(1) With a bunch of roses in hand, A asked B: What do you think of the flowers?

(2) Pointing to a vase with dozens of roses in it, A asked B: What do you think of the vase?

(3) After a party, A said to B: The hostess is an awful bore, don‘t you think so?

同一言语行为在不同的语境中对不同的交际者所完成的施为用意也不尽相同。在语境(1)中,B是在表达自己的观点,意图在于夸赞这些玫瑰花。但在语境(2)中,B对花瓶只字未提,却大赞花瓶里的玫瑰,是在向A委婉的阐述花瓶并不是太好。在语境(3)中,B谈起了与A所说的毫不相干的话题,宣告对A所谈话题毫不感兴趣,是在发出“Let‘s talk about something else.”的请求。

例 3:“上哪去?”

【语用能力】

语境:

(1) 老王和老李是邻居,他们在住家附近相遇,老王对老李如是说。

(2) 星期六晚上,母亲看到儿子打扮一新准备出门,如是问。

(3) 派出所里,某甲因斗殴被扭送,他在与民警争辩时不知所措地要走出房门,民警如是喝道。(徐春霞 2003)

在语境(1)中,“上哪去?”是对熟人的问候、打招呼,以示友好关心之意。在语境(2)中,是母亲对儿子一系列行为举止的反应,是一种信息性的询问。在语境(3)中,民警具有一定的威严性,其发问是对甲出走行为的阻止。

施为性言语行为可以采取直接手段亦可采取间接手段:

例 4:Mary has been late for school very often recently. During the break, her teacher, Professor

Gordon talks to her.

Prof. Gordon: Er…Mary, I have to remind you that this is the fourth time you‘ve been late

this week. Could you possibly try to be a little earlier next time?

Mary: Oh, I‘m terribly sorry, Miss Gordon. I promise it won't happen again.

在此例中,Mary 首先采用了直接道歉的方式(I‘m terribly sorry)来向Professor Gordon表达歉意,然后又用间接承诺的方式(I promise it won't happen again)向Professor Gordon保证以后再也不犯。

一般在何时何地采用何种施为性行为手段会因文化、语境、交际者、交际风格等而各异。

2. 施为句(performative)与施为动词(performative verb)

能够完成施为性言语行为的语句,我们将其称之为施为句。交际者在表达这类语句的同时,也实施了某种行为。而表示实施这一行为的动词,我们将其称之为施为动词。 例 5:I made a promise.

例 6:I promise to come back.

例5不是施为句,例6是。因为例5只是对客观事实的陈述(我们称之为表述句(constative));但例6中,言者在陈述的同时却实施了“许诺”这一行为。例6中的promise就是我们所说的施为动词。那么,怎么来判断施为动词呢?

奥斯汀(1969)给出了公式:―what one is doing in saying something‖。非施为性动词套入会显得很别扭;同理,还可以将动词与hereby连用,非施为性动词也会显得很别扭。如我们将例5,例6分别代入这两个公式就变成:

语用能力(三)
语用能力

浅谈培养职业学校学生的英语语用能力

孔子云:“诵诗三百,授之以政,不达;使於四方,不能专对;虽多,亦奚以为?”

孔子以为,读了三百多篇诗,应该会办政治,会办外交,如果把政事交给他,而

他不能通达,派他到国外办事,在辞令方面,又不能专对,读诗虽多,又有何用。相对于语言的学习而言,如果不能实际运用或用之有误,就不能算真正掌握这门

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